1. Introduction
2. Regional History
2.a. Mesopotamia History
2.b Persia History
2.c Kuwait
3. Contemporary History
3.a Ottoman Empire & WW1
3.b Persia becomes Iran
3.c Iraq & Saddam Hussein
4. Wars
4.a Iraq-Iran War
4.b Gulf War
4.c US-Iraq War
4.d Post-War Relations
5. International Relations
5.a Kurds/Kudistan
5.b US-Israel-Iran relations
5.c Syria, ISIL vs ISIS
5.d Iranian Terror Groups
1. Introduction:
The Iraq & Iran region have been occupied and fought over for thousands of years by famous Empires like the Macedonians, Persians, Babylonians, Akkadians, Sumerians & Ottomans. Since WW1, Iraq & Iran have been independent states and have clashed with each other including an 8-year war (1980-88) and their tiny neighbor Kuwait has been caught up in their battles and invaded as well. The US won 2 wars against Iraq, and still maintains bases there today fighting ISIS. The US originally sided with Iran in their Iraqi war but relations have soured since the US has allied with Saudi Arabia & Israel, Iran's main rivals. In recent years, the US & their Israeli allies have assassinated Iranian General Soleimani and continued to fight wars against Iranian backed terror groups such as ISIS, Hamas, Hezbollah, & the Houthis. Tensions between Iran & Israel are at all-time highs as Iran now has their own hypersonic missiles capable of hitting Tel Aviv, Israel in 400 Seconds. Iran is also supplying drones to Russia to fight their Ukraine War and Iran may join the Russia-Belarus Alliance to obtain nuclear weapons.
2. History of Iraq & Iran Region The history of Iraq and Iran is rich and complex, with both countries having deep historical roots and experiencing significant political, cultural, and social developments throughout the centuries. Here is a broad overview of their histories:
2.a Iraq (Mesopotamia):
Mesopotamia: Ancient Mesopotamia, the land between the Tigris and Euphrates rivers, was the cradle of civilization and home to several powerful empires, including the Sumerians, Akkadians, Babylonians, and Assyrians. These civilizations made significant contributions to human history, developing systems of writing, law, and governance.
Islamic Period: With the Arab conquest in the 7th century CE, Mesopotamia came under Muslim rule and became an integral part of the Islamic Caliphate. The Abbasid Caliphate, centered in Baghdad, made the region a center of learning and culture during the Islamic Golden Age.
Mongol Invasions and Ottoman Rule: In the 13th century, the Mongols, led by Genghis Khan and his successors, swept through Mesopotamia, causing massive destruction. After the Mongol Empire fragmented, the region came under the rule of the Ilkhanate, a Mongol khanate. Later, the Ottomans conquered the area and incorporated it into their empire.
2.b Iran (Persia):
Ancient Persia: Iran has a long history dating back to ancient times. The region was home to several powerful civilizations, including the Elamites and the Medes. The Achaemenid Empire, founded by Cyrus the Great in the 6th century BCE, is often regarded as the first Persian Empire. Under rulers like Darius the Great and Xerxes, the Achaemenids expanded their empire to become one of the largest in history, encompassing parts of modern-day Iran, Iraq, Egypt, and beyond. Persia thrived as a powerful and influential empire for several centuries, leaving a lasting impact on the region's culture, language (Old Persian), and historical identity.
Hellenistic and Parthian Periods: Following the conquests of Alexander the Great in the 4th century BCE, the Persian Empire fell to the Seleucids and then the Parthians. The Parthian Empire, which thrived from the 3rd century BCE to the 3rd century CE, controlled the region and established trade links along the Silk Road.
Sassanian Empire: The Sassanians, a Persian dynasty, overthrew the Parthians in the 3rd century CE and established the Sassanian Empire. This period saw a resurgence of Persian power and influence, with the Sassanians clashing with the Byzantine Empire and spreading Zoroastrianism as the state religion.
Arab Conquest and Islamic Period: In the 7th century CE, Arab Muslims, led by Caliph Umar, conquered the Sassanian Empire and introduced Islam to the region. The Islamic period brought a blending of Arab and Persian cultures, with Persian contributions to Islamic art, literature, and governance. Various Persian dynasties, such as the Samanids and the Safavids, emerged in subsequent centuries.
Qajar Dynasty: The Qajar dynasty ruled Iran from the late 18th century to the early 20th century, a period marked by political instability and foreign interventions.
2.c Kuwait: The formation of Kuwait as a distinct political entity is closely tied to its historical background and interactions with regional powers.
Early History: The area that encompasses present-day Kuwait has a long history dating back to ancient times. The region was inhabited by various Arab tribes and was part of the larger Arabian Peninsula. Kuwait's location along the Arabian Gulf facilitated trade and maritime activities, contributing to its economic importance in the region.
Settlement and Tribal Governance: In the 17th century, members of the Al-Sabah family, originally from the Anizah tribe, migrated to the area and established a settlement near the present-day Kuwait City. They formed alliances with local tribes, including the Bani Utub, and gradually gained control over the region. The Al-Sabah family played a significant role in the governance and administration of Kuwait.
British Protectorate: In the 19th century, Kuwait faced territorial disputes and conflicts with neighboring powers, including the Ottoman Empire and regional Arab tribes. To ensure protection and stability, the rulers of Kuwait sought the assistance of the British Empire. In 1899, Kuwait officially became a British protectorate under the Anglo-Kuwaiti Treaty, granting Britain control over Kuwait's foreign affairs.
Independence and Modern Statehood: Kuwait's path towards independence began in the mid-20th century. In 1961, following the termination of the British protectorate, Kuwait declared its independence from Britain. It adopted a constitution and established itself as a sovereign state, with Sheikh Abdullah Al-Salim Al-Sabah becoming the first Emir of Kuwait.
Economic Development: Kuwait's modern history is closely intertwined with its significant oil reserves. In the mid-20th century, Kuwait experienced an oil boom, transforming its economy and society. Oil revenues allowed for substantial infrastructure development, improved living standards, and the establishment of a welfare state.
Gulf Wars and Regional Challenges: Kuwait faced a major crisis in 1990 when it was invaded and occupied by Iraq under the regime of Saddam Hussein. The Iraqi occupation lasted for several months until a U.S.-led coalition, with international support, intervened and liberated Kuwait in 1991 during the Gulf War.
Today, Kuwait is a constitutional monarchy with a parliamentary system. It has become a prosperous nation with a high standard of living, diversifying its economy beyond oil through investments and other sectors. Kuwait plays an active role in regional affairs and maintains diplomatic relations with countries worldwide.
3. Contemporary History
3.a WW1 - Fall of Ottoman Empire The creation of modern Iraq and Iran resulted from a series of historical developments and geopolitical changes in the early 20th century, including the fall of the Ottoman Empire in WW1.
Ottoman Empire: The Ottoman Empire, founded in the 13th century, was a vast empire that spanned across three continents, including present-day Turkey, the Middle East, and parts of Southeast Europe. It incorporated diverse ethnic and religious groups under its rule.
World War I and the Dissolution of the Ottoman Empire: During World War I, the Ottoman Empire allied with Germany and Austria-Hungary, facing defeat against the Allied Powers. Following the war, the empire was dismembered through a series of agreements and treaties, including the Treaty of Sèvres in 1920. The creation of Iraq and Iran as separate nations from the Ottoman Empire involved a combination of factors, including the redrawing of borders by colonial powers, regional dynamics, and nationalist movements. These new states faced challenges in nation-building, establishing governance systems, and defining their identities in the aftermath of the Ottoman Empire's dissolution.
3.b1 Creation of Iraq: After World War I, the British Empire, as one of the victorious powers, occupied territories previously under Ottoman control, including Mesopotamia, which encompassed present-day Iraq. The British government sought to establish a mandate over the region, known as the British Mandate for Mesopotamia. In 1921, the British established a semi-autonomous state called the Kingdom of Iraq, which was initially under the rule of King Faisal I. The borders of Iraq were defined by the British, taking into consideration strategic and political interests. The mandate ended in 1932 when Iraq gained full independence.
3.b2 Iraq, Saddam Hussein & the Ba'ath Party (1932-2003)
3c1 Creation of Iran: Iran, historically known as Persia, had remained outside direct Ottoman control, although it faced invasions and territorial disputes over centuries. During World War I, Iran was occupied by Russian, British, and Ottoman forces due to its strategic importance and natural resources. After the war, Iran's independence was recognized, and the Qajar dynasty, which had ruled Iran, faced increasing pressure from internal and external forces for political and social reforms.
Pahlavian Dynasty & Persia becomes Iran. In the early 20th century, Persia experienced a period of significant political and social changes. Reza Shah Pahlavi, a military officer, seized power and established the Pahlavi dynasty, leading to a period of centralization and secularization in Persia, known as the White Revolution. Pahlavi sought to modernize Persia, partly inspired by the nationalism and nation-building trends of the time. As part of these efforts, he proposed changing the name of the country from Persia to Iran. The name change from Persia to Iran was officially announced by Reza Shah in 1935. "Iran" is derived from the term "Aryan," which reflects the historical roots of the Iranian people. The shift aimed to emphasize the ethnic and national identity of Iranians and promote a sense of unity and pride among the diverse ethnic groups within the country. Today, Iran remains the official name of the country, representing its historical and cultural heritage as well as its modern identity. The transition from Persia to Iran reflects a broader trend of nations adopting names that reflect their indigenous identities and aspirations for self-determination.
International Recognition: Following the name change, Iran gradually gained international recognition, with the majority of countries adopting the use of "Iran" as the official name. This change in nomenclature further solidified the country's identity as a modern nation-state.
Political and Geopolitical Factors: The transition from Persia to Iran occurred during a period of geopolitical shifts and growing anti-colonial sentiment. Nationalist movements in Iran, along with a desire for self-determination, played a crucial role in asserting a distinct Iranian identity and challenging the influence of foreign powers. However, the Shah's rule was also marked by autocracy, political repression, economic disparities, and perceived subservience to Western powers, particularly the United States.
3.c2 Iranian Revolution of 1979
Islamic Revolution: In 1979, Iran experienced a major revolution that overthrew the Pahlavi monarchy and established an Islamic republic under the leadership of Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini. The revolution brought significant political and social changes, transforming Iran into an Islamic state with a unique political system and a focus on Islamic principles.
Rise of Opposition: Various opposition forces began to coalesce against the Shah's regime, including secular nationalist groups, left-wing organizations, and religious figures critical of the Shah's policies. Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini emerged as a prominent figure and leading critic of the Shah's government. His religious and political teachings gained traction among different segments of society, particularly the religious establishment, intellectuals, and disaffected youth.
Widespread Protests: The revolution was triggered by large-scale protests and demonstrations that started in 1978. These protests initially centered around grievances such as political repression, corruption, and economic inequalities. As the movement grew, the demands expanded to include the overthrow of the Shah and the establishment of an Islamic government.
Fall of the Monarchy: The revolution reached its climax in early 1979. As the protests intensified and strikes paralyzed the country, the Shah's authority weakened. Mohammad Reza Shah Pahlavi eventually fled Iran on January 16, 1979, seeking medical treatment abroad. This marked the end of the monarchy and the beginning of a power vacuum.
Islamic Republic and Ayatollah Khomeini's Leadership: Following the Shah's departure, a referendum was held in April 1979, and an overwhelming majority of Iranians voted in favor of establishing an Islamic Republic. Ayatollah Khomeini, who had been in exile in France, returned to Iran in February 1979 and assumed a central leadership role. The new government was based on Islamic principles and centered around the authority of the Supreme Leader, with Ayatollah Khomeini holding that position until his death in 1989.
Transformation of Society and Politics: The Iranian Revolution led to significant changes in Iran's political, social, and cultural landscape. The new government implemented Islamic laws, institutions, and practices, which affected various aspects of daily life, including education, dress codes, and gender roles. The revolution also resulted in the nationalization of industries, land reforms, and the redistribution of wealth.
Regional and Global Implications: The establishment of the Islamic Republic of Iran had significant regional and global implications. Iran's new government sought to export its revolutionary ideals and support like-minded movements in other countries. This contributed to geopolitical shifts and tensions in the region, particularly with neighboring countries and the United States.
The Iranian Revolution remains a pivotal event in modern Iranian history, shaping the country's political trajectory, regional dynamics, and international relations. It continues to influence domestic politics and policies in Iran to this day.
4. War History and Relations between Iraq, Iran, and Kuwait The relationship between Iraq, Iran, and Kuwait has been marked by a complex history of conflicts, territorial disputes, and regional power struggles.
4.a Iran-Iraq War (1980-1988): The Iran-Iraq War was a prolonged and brutal conflict that erupted in 1980 when Saddam Hussein's Iraq invaded Ayatollah Khomeini's Iran. The war was primarily driven by a combination of territorial disputes, ideological differences, and regional power rivalries. The conflict witnessed significant human and material losses on both sides, with estimates of casualties ranging from hundreds of thousands to over a million. The war concluded in 1988 with a ceasefire, leaving both countries economically and militarily weakened.
4.b Gulf War/ Kuwait Invasion (1990-1991)
Invasion of Kuwait (1990-1991): In 1990, Iraq, under Saddam Hussein's leadership, invaded Kuwait, claiming it as Iraq's "19th province." The invasion was met with international condemnation, and a U.S.-led coalition was formed to liberate Kuwait. The Gulf War ensued in 1991, with a swift military intervention by the coalition forces, pushing back Iraqi troops and liberating Kuwait. The conflict severely damaged Iraq's infrastructure and economy, leading to international sanctions and a prolonged period of political instability.
Post-Gulf War Relations: After the Gulf War, Iraq faced significant challenges in its relations with Iran and Kuwait. Iraq remained under United Nations sanctions, limiting its ability to rebuild and recover. Relations between Iraq and Iran gradually improved during this period, as both countries shared a Shiite majority population and sought to reestablish political and economic ties. However, suspicions and occasional tensions persisted, particularly regarding their differing regional ambitions.
Ongoing Border Disputes: Iraq and Kuwait have had historical border disputes, particularly concerning the demarcation of their shared border along the Shatt al-Arab waterway. The demarcation issue was partly resolved in 1993 through negotiations facilitated by the United Nations. However, occasional incidents, such as border skirmishes and accusations of territorial violations, have continued to strain their relationship.
4.c US-Iraqi War (2003-2011)
The U.S.-Iraq War, also known as the Iraq War or the Second Gulf War, refers to the military conflict that took place from 2003 to 2011 between the United States-led coalition and Iraq. The war had multiple underlying factors and motivations, including concerns over Iraq's alleged possession of weapons of mass destruction (WMDs), the desire to remove Saddam Hussein from power, and broader strategic goals in the Middle East.
Justification and Invasion: In 2003, the United States, along with a coalition of allies, launched a military invasion of Iraq. The primary justification given by the U.S. government was the belief that Iraq possessed WMDs, which posed a potential threat to regional and global security. However, subsequent investigations did not find evidence of active WMD programs in Iraq.
Overthrow of Saddam Hussein: The war resulted in the swift overthrow of Saddam Hussein's regime. The capture of Baghdad and the fall of the Ba'athist government led to Saddam Hussein's capture in December 2003. The U.S. administration sought to establish a new democratic government in Iraq and facilitate political and societal reconstruction.
Insurgency and Sectarian Violence: Following the initial invasion, Iraq experienced a prolonged period of instability, marked by an insurgency and sectarian violence. Various factions, including remnants of the former Iraqi regime, Islamic extremists, and rival sectarian groups, engaged in attacks against coalition forces and each other, leading to significant casualties and instability.
Coalition Provisional Authority and Transition: The Coalition Provisional Authority (CPA), headed by American diplomat L. Paul Bremer, governed Iraq during the transitional period. The CPA aimed to rebuild Iraq's institutions, establish security forces, and facilitate the transition to an Iraqi-led government.
Formation of Iraqi Government: In 2004, an interim Iraqi government was established, followed by the ratification of a permanent constitution and subsequent elections. The process aimed to establish a representative and inclusive government, albeit amidst ongoing security challenges and sectarian tensions.
Surge and Stabilization: In 2007, the U.S. implemented a military strategy known as the "Surge" under General David Petraeus. It involved an increase in troop levels and a shift in counterinsurgency tactics to stabilize the security situation. The Surge, coupled with the Sunni Awakening movement, helped reduce violence and improve stability in some parts of the country.
Withdrawal and End of Combat Operations: In 2008, the U.S. and Iraqi governments signed the U.S.-Iraq Status of Forces Agreement (SOFA), which outlined the timeline for the withdrawal of U.S. forces from Iraq. Combat operations officially ended in August 2010, and the last U.S. troops left Iraq in December 2011.
4.d Post-War Relations
Post-2003 Iraq: The U.S.-led invasion of Iraq in 2003 and subsequent toppling of Saddam Hussein's regime brought further geopolitical changes to the region. The new political landscape in Iraq, coupled with ongoing sectarian tensions, contributed to complex dynamics in its relations with both Iran and Kuwait. Iran's influence in Iraq increased, as it developed close ties with certain Shiite factions, while Kuwait remained cautious about regional developments and focused on its own stability and security.
The U.S. Iraq War had significant consequences for Iraq, the region, and the United States. It resulted in the removal of Saddam Hussein's regime, but also led to a power vacuum, sectarian tensions, and increased instability in Iraq. The war's aftermath included ongoing challenges in rebuilding infrastructure, establishing effective governance, and combating extremist groups. Additionally, the war had far-reaching geopolitical implications, reshaping the regional balance of power and contributing to wider debates on U.S. foreign policy and military interventions.
While the Iraq-Iran-Kuwait relationship has witnessed periods of conflict, tensions, and occasional cooperation, the dynamics continue to evolve in response to regional and international developments. The ongoing challenges of security, governance, and competing regional aspirations shape the interactions between these nations, influencing the broader geopolitical landscape of the Middle East.
5. Kurds & Kurdistan
5.a Kurdistan:
Kurdistan refers to a region primarily inhabited by the Kurdish people, who are an ethnic group with their own distinct language, culture, and history. Kurdistan is not an independent nation but rather a culturally and geographically defined region spread across parts of several countries in the Middle East, including Iraq, Iran, Turkey, and Syria.
The Kurdish people, estimated to number around 30-40 million, have a long history and a strong sense of national identity. They have strived for self-determination and the establishment of an independent Kurdish state, often referred to as Kurdistan. However, despite their aspirations, Kurdistan has not achieved official recognition as a sovereign state.
The Kurdish people have faced a complex and often challenging political landscape in the countries where they reside. In Iraq, the Kurdistan Regional Government (KRG) was established in 1992, following the Gulf War, granting a degree of autonomy to Iraqi Kurdistan within the federal structure of Iraq. The KRG has its own regional government, security forces (Peshmerga), and control over certain areas. Iraqi Kurdistan has made significant progress in terms of economic development and governance compared to other parts of Iraq.
In Turkey, the Kurdish issue has been a source of longstanding tension. The Kurdistan Workers' Party (PKK), a militant group seeking greater rights for Kurds and sometimes advocating for an independent Kurdistan, has been engaged in armed conflict with the Turkish government since the 1980s. The situation has resulted in significant political and social challenges for Turkey's Kurdish population.
In Iran, Kurds are one of the country's largest ethnic minorities, primarily residing in the western provinces. They have faced varying degrees of political and cultural repression, while also participating in Iran's political landscape.
In Syria, the Kurdish population resides primarily in the northeastern region. During the Syrian Civil War, Kurdish groups, most notably the People's Protection Units (YPG), played a significant role in fighting against the Islamic State (IS) and established autonomous administrations in the areas they controlled. However, the situation remains complex and fluid, with competing interests and regional dynamics.
It is important to note that the Kurdish issue is multifaceted, encompassing political, cultural, and historical dimensions. The pursuit of Kurdish rights and aspirations for self-governance continue to shape the geopolitical landscape of the region and have implications for the countries involved and the broader Middle East.
US-Kurd Relations: U.S. relations with the Kurds have been multifaceted, with various instances of cooperation, support, and at times, complex dynamics. The U.S. has interacted with Kurdish groups across different countries in the Middle East, including Iraq, Syria, Turkey, and Iran.
Iraqi Kurds:
Post-Gulf War: Following the Gulf War in 1991, the U.S. established a no-fly zone in northern Iraq, known as the Kurdistan Region, to protect the Kurdish population from Saddam Hussein's regime. This helped foster a degree of autonomy and stability in the region.
Support against Saddam Hussein: During the U.S.-led invasion of Iraq in 2003, Kurdish Peshmerga forces, the military of the Kurdistan Regional Government (KRG), cooperated with the U.S. in ousting Saddam Hussein's regime.
Post-Invasion Cooperation: The U.S. provided assistance, training, and military support to the Kurdish forces in their fight against ISIS in Iraq. The Kurdish Peshmerga played a significant role in combating the extremist group.
Syrian Kurds:
Fight against ISIS: In Syria, the U.S. collaborated with Kurdish-led forces, primarily the People's Protection Units (YPG) and its political wing, the Democratic Union Party (PYD), in the battle against ISIS. The U.S. provided training, equipment, and air support, which helped the Kurdish-led forces retake territory from ISIS.
Controversies: The U.S. support for Kurdish groups in Syria has caused tensions with Turkey, as Turkey views the YPG as an extension of the Kurdistan Workers' Party (PKK), a group it considers a terrorist organization. This has strained U.S.-Turkey relations.
Turkey and Kurdish Issue:
PKK and U.S. Designation: The PKK has waged a decades-long insurgency against the Turkish state, seeking greater rights for Kurds and, at times, advocating for an independent Kurdistan. The U.S. has designated the PKK as a terrorist organization and provided support to Turkey in counterterrorism efforts.
Tensions with Kurdish Allies: The U.S. faces the challenge of balancing its support for Kurdish groups fighting ISIS with its alliance with Turkey, which has conducted military operations against Kurdish forces in Syria and Iraq.
Overall Dynamics: U.S. relations with the Kurds have been influenced by strategic interests, counterterrorism efforts, regional stability considerations, and alliances with other countries in the region. The U.S. has recognized the contribution of Kurdish forces in the fight against ISIS but has also faced complexities due to the sensitivities and conflicting interests of regional actors.
It's important to note that U.S. policies towards the Kurds can vary based on specific circumstances, regional dynamics, and geopolitical considerations.
5.b US Relations with Iraq & Iran: U.S. Relations with Iraq and Iran have been complex and marked by periods of cooperation, conflict, and shifting alliances.
5.b1 U.S. Relations with Iraq:
Saddam Hussein Era: U.S.-Iraq relations during Saddam Hussein's regime were characterized by a mix of engagement and hostility. In the 1980s, the U.S. supported Iraq in its war against Iran, providing economic aid, intelligence, and military support. However, relations deteriorated in the late 1980s and early 1990s due to Iraq's invasion of Kuwait, which led to the Gulf War in 1991.
Post-Gulf War and Sanctions: Following the Gulf War, Iraq faced international isolation and United Nations-imposed sanctions. The U.S. maintained a policy of containment and no-fly zones to protect Kurdish and Shiite populations from Saddam Hussein's regime.
2003 Invasion and Occupation: In 2003, the U.S.-led a coalition invaded Iraq, alleging the presence of weapons of mass destruction (WMDs). The invasion resulted in the overthrow of Saddam Hussein's regime and the subsequent occupation of Iraq. The U.S. faced challenges in post-war reconstruction, security, and the establishment of a new Iraqi government.
Transition and Withdrawal: In subsequent years, the U.S. focused on stabilizing Iraq, supporting the formation of an Iraqi government, and training Iraqi security forces. The U.S. gradually withdrew its forces from Iraq, with the last combat troops leaving in 2010, and the formal withdrawal completed in 2011.
Continued Engagement: Since the withdrawal, the U.S. has maintained diplomatic, economic, and security ties with Iraq. The U.S. supports Iraq in its fight against ISIS, provides military aid, and promotes political stability and economic development. However, Iraq's relations with the U.S. have also been influenced by regional dynamics and Iran's influence in the country.
5.1b U.S. Relations with Iran:
History of Tensions: The relationship between the U.S. and Iran has been strained for several decades. The 1979 Iranian Revolution, which overthrew the U.S.-backed Shah, led to the hostage crisis at the U.S. embassy in Tehran, further worsening relations.
Sanctions and Nuclear Deal: The U.S. has imposed various sanctions on Iran over the years, primarily targeting its nuclear program, human rights record, and support for militant groups. However, in 2015, the U.S., along with other world powers, negotiated the Joint Comprehensive Plan of Action (JCPOA), commonly known as the Iran Nuclear Deal. The deal aimed to limit Iran's nuclear program in exchange for sanctions relief. However, the U.S. withdrew from the agreement in 2018, straining relations once again.
Regional Rivalries: The U.S. and Iran have been involved in regional conflicts where their interests have clashed. This includes Iraq, where the U.S. and Iran have supported different factions and had competing objectives. Additionally, Iran's support for militant groups like Hezbollah in Lebanon and its involvement in the Syrian civil war have contributed to tensions with the U.S.
Nuclear Program and Diplomacy: Iran's nuclear program has been a major point of contention. The U.S. and its allies have expressed concerns about the potential military dimensions of Iran's program, while Iran maintains that it is for peaceful purposes. Diplomatic efforts have been made to address these concerns and find a diplomatic solution, including the JCPOA negotiations.
Explain the history of Mesopotamia from beginning to today
ChatGPT
The history of Mesopotamia spans several millennia, from the rise of the earliest civilizations to the modern-day region of Iraq. Here is an overview of the history of Mesopotamia from its beginnings to the present:
Early Civilization: Mesopotamia, meaning "land between rivers," refers to the region located between the Tigris and Euphrates rivers in present-day Iraq. It is considered one of the cradles of civilization. Around 3500 BCE, the Sumerians established city-states in Mesopotamia, developing complex societies and inventing writing (cuneiform), wheel, and irrigation systems. Other significant civilizations, such as the Akkadians, Babylonians, and Assyrians, rose to power in subsequent centuries, leaving lasting cultural and architectural legacies.
Empires and Conquests: Throughout its history, Mesopotamia witnessed the rise and fall of numerous empires. The region was frequently contested and conquered by various powers, including the Persians, Greeks under Alexander the Great, Parthians, and Romans. Mesopotamia became part of the Persian Empire under the Achaemenid dynasty in the 6th century BCE and later came under the control of the Hellenistic Seleucid Empire.
Islamic Era: With the Arab Muslim conquests in the 7th century CE, Mesopotamia came under the influence of Islamic caliphates, including the Umayyad and Abbasid dynasties. The region became a center of Islamic learning and scholarship, with cities like Baghdad serving as important cultural and intellectual hubs.
Mongol Invasions and Ottoman Rule: In the 13th century, the Mongols, led by Genghis Khan and later his grandson Hulagu Khan, invaded and devastated Mesopotamia. The region experienced a period of political instability and fragmentation. In the 16th century, Mesopotamia came under the rule of the Ottoman Empire, which controlled the area until the aftermath of World War I.
British Influence and Independence: Following World War I, the Ottoman Empire collapsed, and Mesopotamia came under British administration as the League of Nations Mandate for Mesopotamia. The British established the Kingdom of Iraq in 1921, and Iraq gained independence in 1932. The country faced challenges in establishing stable governance and managing ethnic and sectarian tensions.
Modern Iraq: In the post-independence era, Iraq witnessed political changes, including the rise of military rule under Saddam Hussein in 1979. His regime engaged in conflicts, including the Iran-Iraq War in the 1980s and the invasion of Kuwait in 1990, which led to international sanctions and the Gulf War in 1991. The U.S.-led invasion in 2003 toppled Saddam Hussein's regime, followed by a period of insurgency, sectarian strife, and political instability.
Today, Iraq is a parliamentary republic with a diverse population comprising Arabs, Kurds, Turkmen, and other ethnic groups. The country faces ongoing challenges, including security concerns, economic development, political reconciliation, and the preservation of cultural heritage.
The history of Mesopotamia is a complex tapestry of ancient civilizations, empires, conquests, and modern statehood, with each era leaving its mark on the region's culture, art, architecture, and societal development.
who were the Sumerians
ChatGPT
The Sumerians were an ancient civilization that thrived in the southern region of Mesopotamia, in what is now modern-day Iraq, during the third millennium BCE. They are considered one of the earliest known civilizations in human history. Here are key points about the Sumerians:
Origin and Location: The Sumerians settled in the southernmost part of Mesopotamia, between the Tigris and Euphrates rivers, in a region known as Sumer. This area corresponds to present-day southern Iraq.
City-States and Civilization: The Sumerians developed a sophisticated urban civilization composed of several city-states. These city-states, such as Uruk, Ur, and Lagash, were politically independent and governed by individual rulers. Each city-state had its own patron deity and religious institutions.
Cultural Contributions: The Sumerians made significant contributions in various fields, including literature, law, mathematics, astronomy, architecture, and governance. They invented writing, known as cuneiform, which was one of the earliest writing systems in the world. Cuneiform was initially used for record-keeping and administrative purposes but later evolved to encompass literature, religious texts, and historical accounts.
Agricultural and Technological Advancements: The Sumerians developed advanced agricultural techniques, including irrigation systems, which allowed them to cultivate the fertile land between the rivers. This enabled surplus food production and the growth of urban centers. They also created innovations such as the wheel, the plow, and the sailboat, which greatly impacted transportation and trade.
Political and Social Structure: Sumerian society was organized hierarchically, with kings or rulers at the top who claimed divine authority. The ruling elite controlled the resources, while commoners worked as farmers, laborers, and craftsmen. The priests held significant influence and played a crucial role in religious rituals and the administration of city-states.
Religion and Mythology: The Sumerians had a polytheistic religious belief system, with a pantheon of gods and goddesses who governed different aspects of life and nature. They built temples called ziggurats as sacred structures for worship. The epic of Gilgamesh, one of the earliest known literary works, comes from Sumerian mythology.
Decline and Legacy: Around 2000 BCE, the Sumerian city-states were gradually conquered by other Mesopotamian empires, including the Akkadians and later the Babylonians. However, Sumerian cultural and linguistic influences persisted in the region for centuries, and their advancements laid the foundation for future civilizations in Mesopotamia.
The Sumerians left an indelible mark on human civilization, with their innovations, writings, and organizational systems shaping the development of subsequent societies in Mesopotamia and beyond. They are considered pioneers in various fields and their legacy continues to be studied and appreciated in the modern world.
who were the Akkadians?
ChatGPT
The Akkadians were an ancient Semitic people who established the Akkadian Empire, one of the first known empires in human history. They flourished in Mesopotamia, specifically in the region that encompasses present-day Iraq and parts of Syria, during the 24th and 23rd centuries BCE. Here are key points about the Akkadians:
Origin and Rise: The Akkadians originated from the northern part of Mesopotamia. They gradually gained prominence under the leadership of Sargon of Akkad, who unified the city-states of Sumer and created the Akkadian Empire around 2334 BCE. Sargon is often referred to as the first known emperor in history.
Empire and Expansion: The Akkadian Empire encompassed a vast territory, stretching from modern-day Iraq to parts of Iran, Syria, and even reaching as far as the Mediterranean Sea. Under Sargon and subsequent Akkadian rulers, the empire expanded through military campaigns and conquests, establishing control over numerous city-states.
Language and Writing: The Akkadians spoke Akkadian, a Semitic language that became the lingua franca of the region. They adopted the Sumerian cuneiform writing system but modified it to suit their own language. Akkadian cuneiform became the dominant script for several centuries and was widely used for administration, trade, literature, and legal documents.
Cultural and Artistic Influences: The Akkadians adopted and adapted many aspects of Sumerian culture, including religious beliefs, mythology, and administrative practices. They also contributed to the cultural and artistic development of Mesopotamia. Akkadian art, though influenced by earlier Sumerian traditions, displayed its own distinctive style and motifs.
Administrative Reforms: The Akkadians implemented administrative reforms to govern their vast empire effectively. They established a centralized bureaucratic system with appointed officials and provincial governors who governed under the authority of the emperor. This administrative structure helped maintain control over diverse regions and facilitate governance.
Decline and Aftermath: After the death of Sargon and his descendants, the Akkadian Empire faced challenges, including economic difficulties, internal conflicts, and invasions by external forces. The empire eventually collapsed around 2154 BCE, leading to a period of political fragmentation in Mesopotamia.
Legacy: Despite the relatively short duration of the empire, the Akkadians left a lasting impact on the region. Akkadian language and culture continued to influence subsequent civilizations in Mesopotamia. The Akkadian Empire also set the precedent for later empires and shaped the political and administrative systems that emerged in the ancient Near East.
The Akkadians were significant in Mesopotamian history as they established one of the first empires and contributed to the cultural and political development of the region. Their accomplishments and influence paved the way for future civilizations and shaped the course of ancient Near Eastern history.
who were the Babylonians?
ChatGPT
The Babylonians were an ancient Semitic civilization that thrived in the region of Mesopotamia, specifically in the city of Babylon and its surrounding areas, from the 18th century BCE to the 6th century BCE. They are known for their advancements in various fields and for the establishment of the renowned city of Babylon as a major cultural and political center. Here are key points about the Babylonians:
Rise of Babylon: The city of Babylon, located in present-day Iraq, was initially a provincial city within the Akkadian and then the Assyrian empires. However, it gained prominence and independence under the rule of Hammurabi, who established the First Babylonian Dynasty around 1792 BCE.
Hammurabi's Code: Hammurabi, one of the most famous Babylonian rulers, is known for creating a comprehensive set of laws called Hammurabi's Code. This legal code was inscribed on a stele and contained laws and regulations governing various aspects of society, such as family, trade, and crime. It established a sense of justice and social order within the empire.
Nebuchadnezzar II and the Neo-Babylonian Empire: The Neo-Babylonian Empire reached its peak during the reign of Nebuchadnezzar II (604-562 BCE). He expanded Babylonian territory, including the conquest of Jerusalem and the exile of the Jewish people to Babylon (known as the Babylonian Captivity). Nebuchadnezzar II also undertook extensive building projects in Babylon, including the famous Hanging Gardens.
Cultural and Scientific Achievements: The Babylonians made significant contributions in various fields. They excelled in astronomy and mathematics, developing a sophisticated system of astronomy that included the division of the sky into constellations and the creation of a calendar based on lunar cycles. They also made advancements in mathematics, particularly in algebra and the use of a base-60 numerical system (which influenced the concept of 60 minutes in an hour and 360 degrees in a circle).
Religion and Mythology: The Babylonians had a polytheistic religious belief system, with a pantheon of gods and goddesses. They built elaborate temples, such as the famous ziggurat dedicated to the god Marduk, the chief deity of Babylon. Babylonian mythology, including the epic of Gilgamesh, had a profound influence on later Mesopotamian and Near Eastern cultures.
Conquests and Fall: The Neo-Babylonian Empire faced challenges from neighboring powers, particularly the rise of the Persian Empire under Cyrus the Great. In 539 BCE, Cyrus captured Babylon and incorporated it into the Achaemenid Persian Empire, marking the end of Babylonian independence.
The Babylonians played a crucial role in the cultural, scientific, and legal development of ancient Mesopotamia. Their achievements and cultural legacy had a lasting impact on subsequent civilizations, and their influence can be seen in fields such as astronomy, mathematics, and law. The city of Babylon remains an iconic symbol of their civilization.
who were the assyrians?
ChatGPT
The Assyrians were an ancient Semitic civilization that flourished in the region of Mesopotamia, primarily in the northern part of present-day Iraq, from the 25th century BCE to the 7th century BCE. Known for their military might, administrative prowess, and cultural achievements, the Assyrians established one of the most powerful empires of the ancient world. Here are key points about the Assyrians:
Origins and Early History: The Assyrians emerged as a distinct culture and political entity in the northern part of Mesopotamia, known as Assyria. Initially, they were a small city-state among other city-states in the region, but over time they expanded their territory and influence through conquest and assimilation.
Rise of the Assyrian Empire: The Assyrian Empire reached its zenith during the Neo-Assyrian period (911-609 BCE). Under the reign of powerful kings such as Ashurnasirpal II, Shalmaneser III, Tiglath-Pileser III, and Sennacherib, the empire expanded its borders through military campaigns and developed efficient administrative systems to govern its vast territories.
Military Superiority: The Assyrians were renowned for their military prowess. They built a formidable army composed of professional soldiers, including infantry, cavalry, and chariot units. They pioneered advanced military tactics, siege warfare techniques, and the use of iron weapons and armor, which gave them a significant advantage over their adversaries.
Administrative and Cultural Achievements: The Assyrians developed a highly centralized administrative system to govern their empire. They implemented efficient bureaucratic structures, established provincial governments, and used a network of well-organized communication and transportation infrastructure. The Assyrians also made cultural and artistic contributions, including impressive palace complexes adorned with intricate reliefs and sculptures.
Ashurbanipal and the Library of Nineveh: One of the most famous Assyrian kings was Ashurbanipal (668-627 BCE). He was known for his patronage of learning and the creation of one of the ancient world's most significant libraries in Nineveh. The library housed a vast collection of cuneiform tablets containing texts on a wide range of subjects, including literature, history, science, and law.
Fall of the Assyrian Empire: Despite their military and administrative achievements, the Assyrians faced internal and external challenges. The empire began to weaken due to power struggles, revolts, and the rise of new regional powers. In 612 BCE, a coalition of Babylonians, Medes, and Scythians sacked Nineveh, the Assyrian capital, and effectively ended the Assyrian Empire.
Legacy: The Assyrians left a lasting impact on the region and subsequent civilizations. Their military tactics and organizational systems influenced future empires, such as the Persians and the Romans. The cultural and artistic achievements of the Assyrians, particularly their reliefs and sculptures, had a significant influence on later Mesopotamian and Near Eastern art.
The Assyrians played a pivotal role in the history of Mesopotamia, establishing a powerful empire that shaped the political, military, and cultural landscape of the ancient Near East. Their legacy remains a testament to their administrative skills, military might, and contributions to art and culture.
who were the Parthians?
ChatGPT
The Parthians were an ancient Iranian people who established the Parthian Empire, also known as the Arsacid Empire, which existed from 247 BCE to 224 CE. The Parthians originated from the region of northeastern Iran and went on to create a powerful empire that stretched across much of Central Asia and the Near East. Here are key points about the Parthians:
Rise of the Parthian Empire: The Parthians emerged as a major power in the aftermath of the conquests of Alexander the Great. They were part of a confederation of Iranian tribes called the Parni, who had settled in the region of Parthia. In 247 BCE, under the leadership of Arsaces I, the Parthians rebelled against the Seleucid Empire, which was a successor state to Alexander's empire, and established their own independent realm.
Military Strength and Warfare: The Parthians were renowned for their skilled cavalry and archery. They excelled in mounted warfare, utilizing tactics such as feigned retreats and highly accurate mounted archery to defeat their enemies. Their cavalry, known as the cataphracts, wore heavy armor and were feared for their effectiveness in battle.
Cultural Syncretism: The Parthians adopted and blended elements of various cultures and civilizations. They embraced a mix of Iranian, Hellenistic, and Persian influences, combining local traditions with aspects of Greek and Persian culture. This cultural syncretism extended to art, architecture, and administration within the Parthian Empire.
Trade and Commerce: The Parthians played a crucial role in the Silk Road trade routes, which connected the East and West. They controlled key trade routes and established prosperous commercial centers, facilitating the exchange of goods and ideas between China, India, and the Roman Empire. Their control over trade contributed to their wealth and economic power.
Relations with Rome: The Parthian Empire often clashed with the Roman Republic and later the Roman Empire. They engaged in a series of wars known as the Roman-Parthian Wars, with conflicts over control of territories such as Mesopotamia. The Parthians proved to be formidable opponents to the Romans and were able to maintain their independence and territorial integrity.
Decline and Fall: The Parthian Empire faced internal struggles and external pressures, including invasions by nomadic tribes such as the Kushans. In the 3rd century CE, the Sassanian Persians rose to power and overthrew the Parthians, establishing the Sassanian Empire.
Legacy: The Parthians left a lasting impact on the region. They influenced subsequent Persian dynasties, including the Sassanians, who adopted and expanded upon many aspects of Parthian culture, administration, and military strategies. The Parthians also contributed to the development of trade and cultural exchange along the Silk Road.
The Parthians were a significant power in the ancient Near East, known for their military prowess, cultural syncretism, and control over key trade routes. Their empire played a crucial role in shaping the geopolitics and cultural landscape of the region during the Hellenistic and early Roman periods.
who were the Medes?
ChatGPT
The Medes were an ancient Iranian people who established the Median Empire, also known as the Median Kingdom, which existed from the 8th century BCE to the 6th century BCE. The Medes played a significant role in the history of ancient Iran and the Near East, and their empire served as a precursor to the later Achaemenid Persian Empire. Here are key points about the Medes:
Origins and Rise: The Medes were an Indo-European people who settled in the western part of ancient Iran, in what is now modern-day northwestern Iran and parts of Iraq. They were originally part of a larger tribal confederation called the Iranian peoples. Over time, the Medes emerged as a dominant group within this confederation and established their own kingdom.
Deioces and the Founding of the Median Empire: According to ancient sources, the Median Empire was founded by a legendary king named Deioces. He is credited with uniting the Medes and establishing their capital city at Ecbatana (modern-day Hamadan, Iran). Deioces implemented strict laws and centralized governance, which contributed to the stability and growth of the empire.
Expansion and Conquests: Under subsequent Median kings, particularly Phraortes and Cyaxares, the Median Empire expanded its territories through military conquests. They brought various neighboring regions and peoples under their rule, including parts of Assyria and the Zagros Mountains. The Medes were particularly successful in their conflicts with the Neo-Assyrian Empire.
Medes and Persians: The Medes played a pivotal role in the rise of the Achaemenid Persian Empire. Around the mid-6th century BCE, the Medes were overthrown by Cyrus the Great, the founder of the Persian Empire. Cyrus, who was of Persian origin, allied with Median nobles and incorporated Median territories into his expanding empire. The Medes retained their influence and played a significant role in the administration and governance of the Achaemenid Empire.
Cultural and Religious Influences: The Medes had their own distinct culture and religious practices. They worshiped a pantheon of gods, with the god Ahura Mazda occupying a prominent position. The religious beliefs and rituals of the Medes influenced later Persian religions, particularly Zoroastrianism, which became the dominant faith during the Achaemenid period.
Legacy: Although the Median Empire was relatively short-lived, it left a lasting impact on the region. The Medes played a crucial role in the political and cultural development of ancient Iran, paving the way for the Achaemenid Persian Empire. They contributed to the centralization of power, the formation of administrative structures, and the blending of various Iranian and regional cultures.
The Medes were an important Iranian people who established a significant empire in ancient Iran. Their rise to power and subsequent incorporation into the Achaemenid Empire set the stage for the emergence of one of the greatest ancient empires in history.
who were the Umayyads?
ChatGPT
The Umayyads were a prominent Arab dynasty that ruled over the Islamic Caliphate from 661 to 750 CE. They were the first hereditary dynasty to hold the title of caliph, the political and religious leader of the Muslim community. The Umayyads played a crucial role in the early history of Islam and had a significant impact on the expansion and administration of the Islamic Empire. Here are key points about the Umayyads:
Origins: The Umayyad clan belonged to the Quraysh tribe, which was the dominant tribe in Mecca and the tribe of the Islamic Prophet Muhammad. Before the rise of the Umayyads, Muhammad's closest companions and successors, known as the Rashidun Caliphs, ruled the Islamic Caliphate.
Establishment of the Umayyad Caliphate: After the assassination of the fourth caliph, Ali ibn Abi Talib, a period of political turmoil known as the First Fitna ensued. In 661 CE, Muawiyah I, a prominent member of the Umayyad clan and governor of Syria, declared himself caliph, establishing the Umayyad Caliphate in Damascus.
Expansion of the Caliphate: Under the Umayyads, the Islamic Caliphate expanded significantly through military campaigns. They extended their rule across North Africa, the Iberian Peninsula (modern-day Spain and Portugal), Central Asia, and parts of the Indian subcontinent. Their empire became one of the largest in history at that time.
Arabization and Centralization: The Umayyads implemented policies aimed at Arabizing the administration and society of the Caliphate. Arabic became the primary language of governance and the official language of the state. They also centralized power in the hands of the ruling elite, favoring Arab Muslims in key positions of authority.
Religious and Political Challenges: The Umayyad Caliphate faced internal opposition, particularly from those who believed that the caliphate should be based on merit and piety rather than hereditary succession. The Umayyads were also met with resistance from non-Arab Muslim groups, such as the Persians, who felt marginalized within the empire.
Cultural and Architectural Achievements: The Umayyads made significant cultural and architectural contributions. They constructed impressive structures, including the Umayyad Mosque in Damascus and the Dome of the Rock in Jerusalem. The Umayyad era also saw the development of a distinctive Islamic art style, characterized by intricate geometric patterns and calligraphy.
Abbasid Overthrow: The Umayyad Caliphate met its downfall with the Abbasid Revolution. In 750 CE, the Abbasids, a rival clan, led a successful rebellion and overthrew the Umayyads. Many members of the Umayyad dynasty were killed, while a few managed to escape to different regions, including Spain, where they established the Umayyad Emirate of Córdoba.
The Umayyads left a lasting impact on the Islamic world. They played a crucial role in the establishment and expansion of the early Islamic Caliphate, while also facing internal divisions and challenges. The Umayyads shaped the administrative, cultural, and architectural aspects of the Islamic Empire, and their legacy continues to be remembered in various parts of the world where their influence was significant.
Who were the Abbasids?
ChatGPT
The Abbasids were an influential Arab dynasty that ruled over the Islamic
explain the Ottoman Empire in Mesopotamia
ChatGPT
2 / 2
The Ottoman Empire was a vast and powerful empire that existed from the 14th century to the early 20th century. While the empire extended across several regions, including Europe, Asia, and Africa, I'll focus on its presence and influence in Mesopotamia.
Mesopotamia, known as the "land between rivers," encompasses the fertile region between the Tigris and Euphrates rivers, which corresponds to present-day Iraq and parts of Syria and Turkey. Here's an overview of the Ottoman Empire's presence in Mesopotamia:
Early Ottoman Expansion: The Ottomans, originally a small Turkic tribe, gradually expanded their territory under the leadership of Osman I in the late 13th century. They gained control over several Anatolian regions and began to assert their dominance over neighboring territories, including parts of Mesopotamia.
Conquest of Baghdad: One of the significant milestones in the Ottoman Empire's presence in Mesopotamia was the conquest of Baghdad in 1534. Under the reign of Sultan Suleiman the Magnificent, the Ottomans captured the city, which had been a center of power for centuries as the capital of various Islamic dynasties, including the Abbasids.
Integration and Administration: Following the conquest of Baghdad, the Ottomans integrated Mesopotamia into their empire. They established provincial administrations, appointed local officials, and integrated local elites into the imperial administration. The Ottoman system of governance relied on local administrators known as "pashas" or "beylers."
Cultural and Religious Diversity: Mesopotamia, like other regions under Ottoman rule, was characterized by cultural and religious diversity. The Ottomans implemented a policy of religious tolerance, allowing various religious communities, including Muslims, Christians, and Jews, to practice their faiths. Islamic law (Sharia) served as the basis for personal and family matters, while non-Muslim communities had their own legal systems.
Economic Importance: Mesopotamia held significant economic importance within the Ottoman Empire. The region's fertile land and access to the Tigris and Euphrates rivers facilitated agricultural production, trade, and commerce. The Ottomans encouraged agricultural development and trade networks, contributing to the prosperity of Mesopotamia.
Resistance and Revolts: Throughout the Ottoman presence in Mesopotamia, there were sporadic instances of resistance and revolts against Ottoman rule. Local tribal groups, religious leaders, and discontented factions occasionally challenged Ottoman authority, seeking greater autonomy or independence.
Late Ottoman Period and Decline: In the late 19th and early 20th centuries, the Ottoman Empire faced significant challenges, both internally and externally. The empire's decline coincided with the rise of nationalism and movements for independence across its territories. In Mesopotamia, Arab nationalists, including figures like Sharif Hussein of Mecca, began seeking independence from Ottoman rule.
Aftermath: Following World War I, the Ottoman Empire collapsed, and its territories were divided among the victorious Allied powers. Mesopotamia came under British control and was subsequently established as the Mandate of Mesopotamia, which eventually became the modern state of Iraq.
The Ottoman Empire's presence in Mesopotamia left a mark on the region's history, shaping its governance, culture, and economic development. Despite challenges and resistance, the Ottomans influenced the trajectory of Mesopotamia until the empire's dissolution and the subsequent reconfiguration of the region under new geopolitical dynamics.
2021/04/24 - The Guardian - An Iranian oil tanker was attacked off the shores of Lebanon while heading for Syria. At least 3 Syrians have on board have died in a fire that broke out after a missile/drone strike that appeared to come from Lebanese waters. Israel is believed to be responsible. Israel has targeted over a dozen Iranian oil tankers approaching Syria & Lebanon since 2019 when it vowed to end Iranian influence in all its neighbor states, including Iraq. The same day Syrian rockets missed their target in Israel, possible retaliation
Iran used drone to take close-up images of US aircraft carrier in Persian Gulf 2021/04/22 -NY Post - Iran successfully flew a surveillance drone directly over a US airfcraft carrier, filming the ship layout, the planes on deck, a helicopter loading, and supplies. IRGC released the images along with a video depicting weaponized drones destroying Tanks. Iran is warning the US its ships aren't safe in the Persian Gulf and can be attacked by drone bombs. Iran has allegedly attacked several Israeli ships, and regularly seizes foreign cargo ships in the Strait of Hormuz.
2021/04/21 - Jerusalem Post - Unexplained explosions at a "secret' Israeli Missile factory, are celebrated by Palestinian Hamas group and Iranian State Media. Earlier this month, malfunctions at an Iranian nuclear factory in Natanz were blamed on Israeli interference.
Israel 'bombed a dozen ships carrying Iranian oil or weapons in past two years' 2021/03/12 - The Guardian - Israel has attacked over a dozen ships bound for Syria in the last 2 years. Majority of them were Iranian oil ships supporting Syrian & Lebanese rebels. Iran has bombed several Israeli ships near Oman & Yemen in response.
Comments